Prestaciones
Prestaciones
(31/01)()
El espectro ensanchado (también llamado espectro esparcido, espectro disperso, spread spectrum o SS) es una técnica por la cual la señal transmitida se ensancha a lo largo de una banda muy ancha de frecuencias, mucho más amplia, de hecho, que el ancho de banda mínimo requerido para transmitir la información que se quiere enviar. No se puede decir que las comunicaciones mediante espectro ensanchado son medios e?cientes de utilización del ancho de banda. Sin embargo, rinden al máximo cuando se los combina con sistemas existentes que hacen uso de la frecuencia. La señal de espectro ensanchado, una vez ensanchada puede coexistir con señales en banda estrecha, ya que sólo les aportan un pequeño incremento en el ruido. En lo que se refiere al receptor de espectro ensanchado, él no ve las señales de banda estrecha, ya que está escuchando un ancho de banda mucho más amplio gracias a una secuencia de código preestablecido.
Podemos concluir diciendo que todos los sistemas de espectro ensanchado satisfacen dos criterios:
Los diseñadores de sistemas de comunicación se interesan a menudo en la eficiencia con la que los sistemas utilizan la energía y el ancho de banda de la señal. En muchos sistemas de comunicación estos son los asuntos más importantes. Sin embargo, en algunos casos existen situaciones en las que es necesario que el sistema resista a las interferencias externas, opere con baja energía espectral, proporcione capacidad de acceso múltiple sin control externo y un canal seguro e inaccesible para oyentes no autorizados. Por todo esto, a veces es necesario y conveniente sacrificar algo de la eficiencia del sistema. Las técnicas de modulación de espectro ensanchado permiten cumplir tales objetivos.
Los aspectos teóricos de la utilización del espectro ensanchado en un medio con fuertes interferencias se conocían desde hace ya cuarenta años. Lo que sí ha sido muy reciente es su implementación práctica. Inicialmente, las técnicas de espectro ensanchado se desarrollaron para propósitos militares y sus implementaciones eran extremadamente caras. Sólo los nuevos avances tecnológicos tales como el VLSI (very large-scale integration, es decir, el proceso de colocar miles, o cientos de miles de componentes electrónicos en un solo chip) y las técnicas de procesado de señal avanzadas hicieron posible desarrollar un equipamiento de espectro ensanchado menos caro para uso civil. Las aplicaciones de esta tecnología incluyen teléfonos móviles, transmisión de datos sin cable y comunicaciones por satélite.
A continuación, se presentan cinco técnicas de espectro ensanchado:
Sistemas de secuencia directa
La secuencia directa es quizás uno de los sistemas de espectro ensanchado más ampliamente conocido, utilizado y relativamente sencillo de implementar. Una portadora en banda estrecha se modula mediante una secuencia pseudoaleatoria (es decir, una señal periódica que parece ruido pero que no lo es). Para la secuencia directa, el incremento de ensanchado depende de la tasa de bits de la secuencia pseudoaleatoria por bit de información. En el receptor, la información se recupera al multiplicar la señal con una réplica generada localmente de la secuencia de código.
Imágen «secuenciadirecta.jpg» no disponible
Sistemas de salto de frecuencia
En los sistemas de salto de frecuencia, la frecuencia portadora del transmisor cambia (o salta) abruptamente de acuerdo con una secuencia pseudoaleatoria. El orden de las frecuencias seleccionadas por el transmisor viene dictado por la secuencia de código. El receptor rastrea estos cambios y produce una señal de frecuencia intermedia constante.
Imágen «saltofrecuencia.jpg» no disponible
Sistemas de salto temporal
Un sistema de salto temporal es un sistema de espectro ensanchado en el que el periodo y el ciclo de trabajo de una portadora se varían de forma pseudoaleatoria bajo el control de una secuencia pseudoaleatoria. El salto temporal se usa a menudo junto con el salto en frecuencia para formar un sistema híbrido de espectro ensanchado mediante acceso múltiple por división de tiempo (TDMA).
Imágen «saltotemporal.jpg» no disponible
Sistemas de frecuencia modulada pulsada (o Chirping)
Se trata de una técnica de modulación en espectro ensanchado menos común que las anteriores, en la que se emplea un pulso que barre todas las frecuencias, llamado chirp, para expandir la señal espectral. El chirping, como también es conocido, suele usarse más en aplicaciones con radares que en la comunicación de datos.
Sistemas híbridos
Los sistemas híbridos usan una combinación de métodos de espectro ensanchado para bene?ciarse de las propiedades más ventajosas de los sistemas utilizados. Dos combinaciones comunes son secuencia directa y salto de frecuencia. La ventaja de combinar estos dos métodos está en que adopta las características que no están disponibles en cada método por separado.
El espectro ensanchado tiene muchas propiedades únicas y diferentes que no se pueden encontrar en ninguna otra técnica de modulación. Para verlo mejor, se listan debajo algunas ventajas y desventajas que existen en los sistemas típicos de espectro ensanchado:
Ventajas
Desventajas
Hay varias propiedades únicas que surgen como resultado de las secuencias pseudoaleatorias y el gran ancho de banda de la señal que éstas generan. Dos de esas propiedades son el direccionamiento selectivo y la multiplexación por división de código. Al asignar una secuencia pseudoaleatoria dada a un receptor particular, la información se le debe direccionar de forma distinta con respecto a los otros receptores a los que se les ha asignado una secuencia diferente. Las secuencias también pueden escogerse para minimizar la interferencia entre grupos de receptores al elegir los que tengan una correlación cruzada baja. De esta forma, se puede transmitir a la misma vez más de una señal en la misma frecuencia. Como vemos, el direccionamiento selectivo y el acceso múltiple por división de código (CDMA) se implementan gracias a las secuencias pseudoaleatorias.
Otras dos de estas propiedades son la baja probabilidad de interceptación y el anti-jamming (la capacidad para evitar las interferencias intencionadas). Cuando a una señal se la expande sobre varios megahercios del espectro, su potencia espectral también se ensancha. Esto hace que la potencia transmitida también se ensanche sobre un extenso ancho de banda y dificulta la detección de forma normal (es decir, sin la utilización de ninguna secuencia pseudoaleatoria). Este hecho también implica una reducción de las interferencias. De esta forma, el espectro ensanchado puede sobrevivir en un medio adverso y coexistir con otros servicios en la misma banda de frecuencia. La propiedad anti-jamming es un resultado del gran ancho de banda usado para transmitir la señal. Si recordamos el teorema de Shannon:
C = W / log(1 + (S/N))
donde:
vemos que la capacidad del canal es proporcional a su ancho de banda y a la relación señal-ruido del canal. De la ecuación anterior se deduce que al expandir el ancho de banda en varios megahercios hay más del ancho de banda suficiente para transportar la tasa de datos requerida, permitiendo contrarrestar los efectos del ruido.
A los sistemas de espectro ensanchado se les reconocen al menos cinco cualidades importantes en su funcionamiento, debidas a la naturaleza de su señal:
Las señales de espectro ensanchado se demodulan en dos pasos:
Al proceso de desensanchado de una señal se le conoce como correlación. Este proceso se consigue mediante la sincronización adecuada de la secuencia pseudoaleatoria ensanchadora entre el transmisor y receptor. La sincronización es el aspecto más difícil que tiene que resolver el receptor. Precisamente, se ha empleado más tiempo, investigación, esfuerzo y dinero en el desarrollo y mejora de las técnicas de sincronización que en cualquier otra área del espectro ensanchado. Para hacernos una idea de su complejidad, podemos decir que la sincronización se descompone en dos partes: primero se requiere una adquisición inicial de la señal y luego su rastreo posterior, dos tareas complicadas de implementar.
Hay varios métodos para resolver estos problemas; muchos de ellos requieren una gran cantidad de complementos discretos para poderse llevar a cabo. Pero esto se ha podido solucionar gracias a las técnicas de procesado de señales digitales (DSP) y a los circuitos integrados en aplicaciones específicas (ASIC). El DSP proporciona funciones matemáticas que pueden desmenuzar la señal en pequeñas partes, analizarla para su sincronización y descorrelacionarla a gran velocidad. En cuanto a los chips ASIC, se recurren a ellos para disminuir el coste de los sistemas, ya que se basan en la tecnología VLSI y se utilizan para crear bloques que se puedan implementar en cualquier tipo de aplicación que desee el diseñador.
Hay tres configuraciones básicas que se usan para la recuperación de la portadora en espectro ensanchado:
Fuente: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espectro_ensanchado
The Serial
Port is harder to interface than the Parallel Port. In most cases, any
device you connect to the serial port will need the serial transmission
converted back to parallel so that it can be used. This can be done
using a UART. On the software side of things, there are many more
registers that you have to attend to than on a Standard Parallel Port.
So what are the advantages of using serial data transfer rather than parallel?
Serial
Cables can be longer than Parallel cables. The serial port transmits a
'1' as -3 to -25 volts and a '0' as +3 to +25 volts where as a parallel
port transmits a '0' as 0v and a '1' as 5v. Therefore the serial port
can have a maximum swing of 50V compared to the parallel port which has
a maximum swing of 5 Volts. Therefore cable loss is not going to be as
much of a problem for serial cables than they are for parallel.
You
don't need as many wires than parallel transmission. If your device
needs to be mounted a far distance away from the computer then 3 core
cable (Null Modem Configuration) is going to be a lot cheaper that
running 19 or 25 core cable. However you must take into account the
cost of the interfacing at each end.
Infra
Red devices have proven quite popular recently. You may of seen many
electronic diaries and palmtop computers which have infra red
capabilities build in. However could you imagine transmitting 8 bits of
data at the one time across the room and being able to (from the
devices point of view) decipher which bits are which? Therefore serial
transmission is used where one bit is sent at a time. IrDA-1 (The first
infra red specifications) was capable of 115.2k baud and was interfaced
into a UART. The pulse length however was cut down to 3/16th of a RS232
bit length to conserve power considering these devices are mainly used
on diaries, laptops and palmtops.
Microcontroller's
have also proven to be quite popular recently. Many of these have in
built SCI (Serial Communications Interfaces) which can be used to talk
to the outside world. Serial Communication reduces the pin count of
these MPU's. Only two pins are commonly used, Transmit Data (TXD) and
Receive Data (RXD) compared with at least 8 pins if you use a 8 bit
Parallel method (You may also require a Strobe).
Devices
which use serial cables for their communication are split into two
categories. These are DCE (Data Communications Equipment) and DTE (Data
Terminal Equipment.) Data Communications Equipment are devices such as
your modem, TA adapter, plotter etc while Data Terminal Equipment is
your Computer or Terminal.
The electrical specifications of the serial port is contained in the EIA (Electronics Industry Association) RS232C / V.24 standard.
Pin Functions
Abbreviation |
Full Name |
Function |
TD |
Transmit Data |
Serial Data Output (TXD) |
RD |
Receive Data |
Serial Data Input (RXD) |
CTS |
Clear to Send |
This line indicates that the Modem is ready to exchange data. |
DCD |
Data Carrier Detect |
When the modem detects a "Carrier" from the modem at the other end of the phone line, this Line becomes active. |
DSR |
Data Set Ready |
This tells the UART that the modem is ready to establish a link. |
DTR |
Data Terminal Ready |
This is the opposite to DSR. This tells the Modem that the UART is ready to link. |
RTS |
Request To Send |
This line informs the Modem that the UART is ready to exchange data. |
RI |
Ring Indicator |
Goes active when modem detects a ringing signal from the PSTN. |
Pin-out and signal directions
Pin numbers are based on the classic DB9 connector. The last table gives the relation between DB25 and DB9 pin numbers.
Caution:
pins not explicitly mentioned below are often used for vendor-specific
purposes, like current-loop or synchronous interfacing.
For
a modem-like device (DCE, Data Carrier Equipment), typically equipped
with a female connector (input and output is with respect to the DCE):
Name/Function |
Direction |
Pin # |
Transmitted Data (TXD) |
input |
2 |
Received Data (RXD) |
output |
3 |
Request To Send |
input |
4 |
Clear To Send |
output |
5 |
Data Set Ready |
output |
6 |
Data Carrier Detected |
output |
8 |
Data Terminal Ready |
input |
20 |
For a terminal-like device (DTE, Data Terminal Equipment). Input and output with respect to the DTE:
Note: the serial interface of a PC is of DTE-type with male connector (originally DB25P, today invariably DB9P).
Name/Function |
Direction |
Pin # |
Transmitted Data (TXD) |
output |
2 |
Received Data (RXD) |
input |
3 |
Request To Send |
output |
4 |
Clear To Send |
input |
5 |
Data Set Ready |
input |
6 |
Data Carrier Detected |
input |
8 |
Data Terminal Ready |
output |
20 |
Null Modems
A
Null Modem is used to connect two DTE's together. This is commonly used
as a cheap way to network games or to transfer files between computers
using Zmodem Protocol, Xmodem Protocol etc. This can also be used with
many Microprocessor Development Systems. Without wired handshaking:
Pin # A |
Union? |
Pin # B |
1 |
- - - - |
1 |
2 |
- - - - |
3 |
3 |
- - - - |
2 |
4-5 |
|
4-5 |
6-8-20 |
|
6-8-20 |
7 |
- - - - |
7 |
*Notice that the ring indicator is optional.
Local connection of similar devices with basic wired handshaking:
Pin # A |
Union? |
Pin # B |
1 |
- - - - |
1 |
2 |
- - - - |
3 |
3 |
- - - - |
2 |
5-6-8 |
- - - - |
20 |
20 |
- - - - |
5-6-8 |
7 |
- - - - |
7 |
*Notice that the ring indicator is optional.
It
only requires 3 wires (TD, RD & SG) to be wired straight through
thus is more cost effective to use with long cable runs. The theory of
operation is reasonably easy. The aim is to make to computer think it
is talking to a modem rather than another computer. Any data
transmitted from the first computer must be received by the second thus
TD is connected to RD. The second computer must have the same set-up
thus RD is connected to TD. Signal Ground (SG) must also be connected
so both grounds are common to each computer.
The
Data Terminal Ready is looped back to Data Set Ready and Carrier Detect
on both computers. When the Data Terminal Ready is asserted active,
then the Data Set Ready and Carrier Detect immediately become active.
At this point the computer thinks the Virtual Modem to which it is
connected is ready and has detected the carrier of the other modem.
All
left to worry about now is the Request to Send and Clear To Send. As
both computers communicate together at the same speed, flow control is
not needed thus these two lines are also linked together on each
computer. When the computer wishes to send data, it asserts the Request
to Send high and as it's hooked together with the Clear to Send, It
immediately gets a reply that it is ok to send and does so.
DB9 to DB25 adapter:
DB9 |
DB25 |
signal |
1 |
8 |
DCD |
2 |
3 |
RXD/TXD |
3 |
2 |
TXD/RXD |
4 |
20 |
DTR |
5 |
7 |
signal ground |
6 |
6 |
DSR |
7 |
4 |
RTS |
8 |
5 |
CTS |
9 |
22 |
ring indicator |
Loopback Plug
This
loopback plug can come in extremely handy when writing Serial / RS232
Communications Programs. It has the receive and transmit lines
connected together, so that anything transmitted out of the Serial Port
is immediately received by the same port. If you connect this to a
Serial Port an load a Terminal Program, anything you type will be
immediately displayed on the screen.
Pin # |
2-3 |
5 |
1-4-6 |
7-8 |
9 |
We have
already talked briefly about DTE & DCE. A typical Data Terminal
Device is a computer and a typical Data Communications Device is a
Modem. Often people will talk about DTE to DCE or DCE to DCE speeds.
DTE to DCE is the speed between your modem and computer, sometimes
referred to as your terminal speed. This should run at faster speeds
than the DCE to DCE speed. DCE to DCE is the link between modems,
sometimes called the line speed.
Most
people today will have 33.6K modems. or 56K Therefore we should expect
the DCE to DCE speed to be either 33.6K or 56K. Considering the high
speed of the modem we should expect the DTE to DCE speed to be about
115,200 BPS.(Maximum Speed of the 16550a UART) This is where some
people often fall into a trap. The communications program which they
use have settings for DCE to DTE speeds. However they see 9.6 KBPS,
14.4 KBPS etc and think it is your modem speed.
Today's
Modems should have Data Compression build into them. This is very much
like PK-ZIP but the software in your modem compresses and decompresses
the data. When set up correctly you can expect compression ratios of
1:4 or even higher. 1 to 4 compression would be typical of a text file.
If we were transferring that text file at 28.8K (DCE-DCE), then when
the modem compresses it you are actually transferring 115.2 KBPS
between computers and thus have a DCE-DTE speed of 115.2 KBPS. Thus
this is why the DCE-DTE should be much higher than your modem's
connection speed.
Some
modem manufacturers quote a maximum compression ratio as 1:8. Lets say
for example its on a new 33.6 KBPS modem then we may get a maximum
268,800 BPS transfer between modem and UART. If you only have a 16550a
which can do 115,200 BPS tops, then you would be missing out on a extra
bit of performance. Buying a 16C650 should fix your problem with a
maximum transfer rate of 230,400 BPS.
However
don't abuse your modem if you don't get these rates. These are MAXIMUM
compression ratios. In some instances if you try to send a already
compressed file, your modem can spend more time trying the compress it,
thus you get a transmission speed less than your modem's connection
speed. If this occurs try turning off your data compression. This
should be fixed on newer modems. Some files compress easier than others
thus any file which compresses easier is naturally going to have a
higher compression ratio.
Flow Control
So
if our DTE to DCE speed is several times faster than our DCE to DCE
speed the PC can send data to your modem at 115,200 BPS. Sooner or
later data is going to get lost as buffers overflow, thus flow control
is used. Flow control has two basic varieties, Hardware or Software.
Software
flow control, sometimes expressed as Xon/Xoff uses two characters Xon
and Xoff. Xon is normally indicated by the ASCII 17 character where as
the ASCII 19 character is used for Xoff. The modem will only have a
small buffer so when the computer fills it up the modem sends a Xoff
character to tell the computer to stop sending data. Once the modem has
room for more data it then sends a Xon character and the computer sends
more data. This type of flow control has the advantage that it doesn't
require any more wires as the characters are sent via the TD/RD lines.
However on slow links each character requires 10 bits which can slow
communications down.
Hardware
flow control is also known as RTS/CTS flow control. It uses two wires
in your serial cable rather than extra characters transmitted in your
data lines. Thus hardware flow control will not slow down transmission
times like Xon-Xoff does. When the computer wishes to send data it
takes active the Request to Send line. If the modem has room for this
data, then the modem will reply by taking active the Clear to Send line
and the computer starts sending data. If the modem does not have the
room then it will not send a Clear to Send.
The UART (8250 and Compatibles)
UART
stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver / Transmitter. Its the
little box of tricks found on your serial card which plays the little
games with your modem or other connected devices. Most cards will have
the UART's integrated into other chips which may also control your
parallel port, games port, floppy or hard disk drives and are typically
surface mount devices. The 8250 series, which includes the 16450,
16550, 16650, & 16750 UARTS are the most commonly found type in
your PC. Later we will look at other types which can be used in your
homemade devices and projects.
Pin Diagrams of UARTs - 16550, 16450 & 8250
Imágen «chip-uart.gif» no disponible
Pin Diagrams for 16550, 16450 & 8250 UARTs
The
16550 is chip compatible with the 8250 & 16450. The only two
differences are pins 24 & 29. On the 8250 Pin 24 was chip select
out which functioned only as a indicator to if the chip was active or
not. Pin 29 was not connected on the 8250/16450 UARTs. The 16550
introduced two new pins in their place. These are Transmit Ready and
Receive Ready which can be implemented with DMA (Direct Memory Access).
These Pins have two different modes of operation. Mode 0 supports
single transfer DMA where as Mode 1 supports Multi-transfer DMA.
Mode
0 is also called the 16450 mode. This mode is selected when the FIFO
buffers are disabled via Bit 0 of the FIFO Control Register or When the
FIFO buffers are enabled but DMA Mode Select = 0. (Bit 3 of FCR) In
this mode RXRDY is active low when at least one character (Byte) is
present in the Receiver Buffer. RXRDY will go inactive high when no
more characters are left in the Receiver Buffer. TXRDY will be active
low when there are no characters in the Transmit Buffer. It will go
inactive high after the first character / byte is loaded into the
Transmit Buffer.
Mode
1 is when the FIFO buffers are active and the DMA Mode Select = 1. In
Mode 1, RXRDY will go active low when the trigger level is reached or
when 16550 Time Out occurs and will return to inactive state when no
more characters are left in the FIFO. TXRDY will be active when no
characters are present in the Transmit Buffer and will go inactive when
the FIFO Transmit Buffer is completely Full.
All
the UARTs pins are TTL compatible. That includes TD, RD, RI, DCD, DSR,
CTS, DTR and RTS which all interface into your serial plug, typically a
D-type connector. Therefore RS232 Level Converters (which we talk about
in detail later) are used. These are commonly the DS1489 Receiver and
the DS1488 as the PC has +12 and -12 volt rails which can be used by
these devices. The RS232 Converters will convert the TTL signal into
RS232 Logic Levels.
Pin No. |
Name |
Notes |
Pin 1:8 |
D0:D7 |
Data Bus |
Pin 9 |
RCLK |
Receiver Clock Input. The frequency of this input should equal the receivers baud rate * 16 |
Pin 10 |
RD |
Receive Data |
Pin 11 |
TD |
Transmit Data |
Pin 12 |
CS0 |
Chip Select 0 - Active High |
Pin 13 |
CS1 |
Chip Select 1 - Active High |
Pin 14 |
nCS2 |
Chip Select 2 - Active Low |
Pin 15 |
nBAUDOUT |
Baud Output - Output from Programmable Baud Rate Generator. Frequency = (Baud Rate x 16) |
Pin 16 |
XIN |
External Crystal Input - Used for Baud Rate Generator Oscillator |
Pin 17 |
XOUT |
External Crystal Output |
Pin 18 |
nWR |
Write Line - Inverted |
Pin 19 |
WR |
Write Line - Not Inverted |
Pin 20 |
VSS |
Connected to Common Ground |
Pin 21 |
RD |
Read Line - Inverted |
Pin 22 |
nRD |
Read Line - Not Inverted |
Pin 23 |
DDIS |
Driver Disable. This pin goes low when CPU is reading from UART. Can be connected to Bus Transceiver in case of high capacity data bus. |
Pin 24 |
nTXRDY |
Transmit Ready |
Pin 25 |
nADS |
Address Strobe. Used if signals are not stable during read or write cycle |
Pin 26 |
A2 |
Address Bit 2 |
Pin 27 |
A1 |
Address Bit 1 |
Pin 28 |
A0 |
Address Bit 0 |
Pin 29 |
nRXRDY |
Receive Ready |
Pin 30 |
INTR |
Interrupt Output |
Pin 31 |
nOUT2 |
User Output 2 |
Pin 32 |
nRTS |
Request to Send |
Pin 33 |
nDTR |
Data Terminal Ready |
Pin 34 |
nOUT1 |
User Output 1 |
Pin 35 |
MR |
Master Reset |
Pin 36 |
nCTS |
Clear To Send |
Pin 37 |
nDSR |
Data Set Ready |
Pin 38 |
nDCD |
Data Carrier Detect |
Pin 39 |
nRI |
Ring Indicator |
Pin 40 |
VDD |
+ 5 Volts |
The
UART requires a Clock to run. If you look at your serial card a common
crystal found is either a 1.8432 MHZ or a 18.432 MHZ Crystal. The
crystal in connected to the XIN-XOUT pins of the UART using a few extra
components which help the crystal to start oscillating. This clock will
be used for the Programmable Baud Rate Generator which directly
interfaces into the transmit timing circuits but not directly into the
receiver timing circuits. For this an external connection mast be made
from pin 15 (baud-out) to pin 9 (Receiver clock in.) Note that the
clock signal will be at Baudrate * 16.
If
you are serious about pursuing the 16550 UART used in your PC further,
then would suggest downloading a copy of the PC16550D data sheet from
National Semiconductors Site. Data sheets are available in .PDF format
so you will need Adobe Acrobat Reader to read these. Texas Instruments
has released the 16750 UART which has 64 Byte FIFO's. Data Sheets for
the TL16C750 are available from the Texas Instruments Site.
Types of UARTS (For PCs):
8250 |
First UART in this series. It contains no scratch register. The 8250A was an improved version of the 8250 which operates faster on the bus side. |
8250A |
This UART is faster than the 8250 on the bus side. Looks exactly the same to software than 16450. |
8250B |
Very similar to that of the 8250 UART. |
16450 |
Used in AT's (Improved bus speed over 8250's). Operates comfortably at 38.4KBPS. Still quite common today. |
16550 |
This was the first generation of buffered UART. It has a 16 byte buffer, however it doesn't work and is replaced with the 16550A. |
16550A |
Is the most common UART use for high speed communications eg 14.4K & 28.8K Modems. They made sure the FIFO buffers worked on this UART. |
16650 |
Very recent breed of UART. Contains a 32 byte FIFO, Programmable X-On / X-Off characters and supports power management. |
16750 |
Produced by Texas Instruments. Contains a 64 byte FIFO. |
Fuentes: http://www.beyondlogic.org/serial/serial.htm
http://www.science.uva.nl/faculteit/museum/rs232c.html
Common names: EIA-449, RS-449, ISO 4902 Primary channel
37 PIN D-SUB MALE (at the DTE) |
37 PIN D-SUB FEMALE (at the DCE) |
37 PIN D-SUB MALE at the DTE (Computer). 37 PIN D-SUB FEMALE at the DCE (Modem).
Pin # |
Name |
V.24 |
Dir |
Description |
Type |
1 |
|
101 |
- - - |
Shield |
Ground |
2 |
SI |
112 |
- - > |
Signal Rate Indicator |
Control |
3 |
n/a |
|
n/a |
unused |
|
4 |
SD- |
103 |
- - > |
Send Data (A) |
Data |
5 |
ST- |
114 |
<- - |
Send Timing (A) |
Timing |
6 |
RD- |
104 |
<- - |
Receive Data (A) |
Data |
7 |
RS- |
105 |
- - > |
Request To Send (A) |
Control |
8 |
RT- |
115 |
<- - |
Receive Timing (A) |
Timing |
9 |
CS- |
106 |
<- - |
Clear To Send (A) |
Control |
10 |
LL |
141 |
- - > |
Local Loopback |
Control |
11 |
DM- |
107 |
<- - |
Data Mode (A) |
Control |
12 |
TR- |
108.2 |
- - > |
Terminal Ready (A) |
Control |
13 |
RR- |
109 |
<- - |
Receiver Ready (A) |
Control |
14 |
RL |
140 |
- - > |
Remote Loopback |
Control |
15 |
IC |
125 |
<- - |
Incoming Call |
Control |
16 |
SF/SR+ |
126 |
<-> |
Signal Freq./Sig. Rate Select. |
Control |
17 |
TT- |
113 |
- - > |
Terminal Timing (A) |
Timing |
18 |
TM- |
142 |
<- - |
Test Mode (A) |
Control |
19 |
SG |
102 |
- - - |
Signal Ground |
Ground |
20 |
RC |
102b |
- - - |
Receive Common |
Ground |
21 |
n/a |
|
n/a |
unused |
|
22 |
SD+ |
103 |
- - > |
Send Data (B) |
Data |
23 |
ST+ |
114 |
<- - |
Send Timing (B) |
Timing |
24 |
RD+ |
104 |
<- - |
Receive Data (B) |
Data |
25 |
RS+ |
105 |
- - > |
Request To Send (B) |
Control |
26 |
RT+ |
115 |
<- - |
Receive Timing (B) |
Timing |
27 |
CS+ |
106 |
<- - |
Clear To Send (B) |
Control |
28 |
IS |
n/a |
- - > |
Terminal In Service |
Control |
29 |
DM+ |
107 |
<- - |
Data Mode (B) |
Control |
30 |
TR+ |
108.2 |
- - > |
Terminal Ready (B) |
Control |
31 |
RR+ |
109 |
<- - |
Receiver Ready (B) |
Control |
32 |
SS |
116 |
<- - |
Select Standby |
Control |
33 |
SQ |
110 |
<- - |
Signal Quality |
Control |
34 |
NS |
n/a |
- - > |
New Signal |
Control |
35 |
TT+ |
113 |
- - > |
Terminal Timing (B) |
Timing |
36 |
SB |
117 |
<- - |
Standby Indicator |
Control |
37 |
SC |
102a |
- - - |
Send Common |
Ground |
Note: Direction is DTE (Computer) relative DCE (Modem).
Name |
Description |
Function |
AA |
Shield Ground |
Also known as protective ground. This is the chassis ground connection between DTE and DCE. |
AB |
Signal Ground |
The reference ground between a DTE and a DCE. Has the value 0 Vdc. |
BA |
Transmitted Data |
Data send by the DTE. |
BB |
Received Data |
Data received by the DTE. |
CA |
Request To Send |
Originated by the DTE to initiate transmission by the DCE. |
CB |
Clear To Send |
Send by the DCE as a reply on the RTS after a delay in ms, which gives the DCEs enough time to energize their circuits and synchronize on basic modulation patterns. |
CC |
DCE Ready |
Known as DSR. Originated by the DCE indicating that it is basically operating (power on, and in functional mode). |
CD |
DTE Ready |
Known as DTR. Originated by the DTE to instruct the DCE to setup a connection. Actually it means that the DTE is up and running and ready to communicate. |
CE |
Ring Indicator |
A signal from the DCE to the DTE that there is an incomming call (telephone is ringing). Only used on switched circuit connections. |
CF |
Received Line Signal Detector |
Known as DCD. A signal send from DCE to its DTE to indicate that it has received a basic carrier signal from a (remote) DCE. |
CH/CI |
Data Signal Rate Select (DTE/DCE Source) |
A control signal that can be used to change the transmission speed. |
DA |
Transmit Signal Element Timing (DTE Source) |
Timing signals used by the DTE for transmission, where the clock is originated by the DTE and the DCE is the slave. |
DB |
Transmitter Signal Element Timing (DCE Source) |
Timing signals used by the DTE for transmission. |
DD |
Receiver Signal Element Timing (DCE Source) |
Timing signals used by the DTE when receiving data. |
IS |
terminal In Service |
Signal that indicates that the DTE is available for operation |
NS |
New Signal |
A control signal from the DTE to the DCE. It instructs the DCE to rapidly get ready to receive a new analog signal. It helps master-station modems rapidly synchronize on a new modem at a tributary station in multipoint circuits |
RC |
Receive Common |
A signal return for receiver circuit reference |
LL |
Local Loopback / Quality Detector |
A control signal from the DTE to the DCE that causes the analog transmision output to be connected to the analog receiver input. |
RL |
Remote Loopback |
Signal from the DTE to the DCE. The local DCE then signals the remote DCE to loopback the analog signal and thus causing a line loopback. |
SB |
Standby Indicator |
Signal from the DCE to indicate if it is uses the normal communication or standby channel |
SC |
Send Common |
A return signal for transmitter circuit reference |
SF |
Select Frequency |
A signal from the DTE to tell the DCE which of the two analog carrier frequencies should be used. |
SS |
Select Standby |
A signal from DTE to DCE, to switch between normal communication or standby channel. |
TM |
Test Mode |
A signal from the DCE to the DTE that it is in test-mode and can't send any data. |
EIA-449 UNSTANDARD 9 Pin Connector Pin Out
Pin # |
Signal Name |
Signal Function |
1 |
Shield |
Ground |
2 |
Sec Receive Ready |
Control from DCE |
3 |
Sec Send Data |
Data to DCE |
4 |
Sec Receive Data |
Data from DCE |
5 |
Signal Ground |
Ground |
6 |
Receive Common |
Ground |
7 |
Sec Request to Send |
Control from DCE |
8 |
Sec Clear to Send |
Control from DCE |
9 |
Send Common |
Ground |
Data Rate |
Cable Length |
2 Mb/sec |
15.24 Meters |
1 Mb/sec |
30.48 Meters |
512 Kb/sec |
60.96 Meters |
256 Kb/sec |
121.92 Meters |
128 Kb/sec |
243.84 Meters |
56 K |
487.68 Meters |
1.2Kb/sec |
914.40 Meters |
EIA/TIA-449; General Purpose 37-Position Interface fro Data terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment Employing Serial binary Data Interchange
A serial mechanical interface standard for transmission of balanced and unbalanced signals between a variety of higher-end computer, media, and multimedia peripherals. EIA-449 allows a maximum data rate of 10 Mbit/s and uses a 37- or 9-pin connector. EIA-449 cabling uses EIA-422 differential pairs to send and receive data, and EIA-423 single-ended lines to send and receive control signals.
V.35/RS449 Cable Length Recommendations; The cable length will determine maximum bus speed, or the maximum transfer rate is determined by the cable length (examples): 2Mbps out to 50 feet, 1Mbps to 100 feet, 512kbps to 200 feet, 256kbps to 400 feet, 128kbps to 800 feet, 56kbps to 1600 feet, 1.2kbps to 3000 feet.
The V.35 specification also specified a 37 pin connector, but many times was implemented with a DB25 with a non-standard pinout. I believe V.35 was replaced by the V.10/V.11 standards. The 34-pin MRAC connector is listed on the V.35 page.
Normally EIA422 and 423 systems may not be connected together. EIA-449 cabling of 422 sends and receives data as differential pairs and control signal as single-ended, but for 423 cabling it sends and receives single-ended data and control signals. Receiving the single ended signal in 423 is accomplished by grounding the 'B' side of the differential receiver at the connector.
So if the system does not follow the EIA-449 (cabling) specification than one (B) side of the differential receiver of the 423 side will be grounded at the connector forcing the differential driver on the 422 side to drive ground. The EIA422 side also uses a termination resistor between the ends of its differential receiver, providing a serious 120 ohm short to ground for the 423 driver.
If the systems were to be connected together (with out regard for 499) than the system would revert to EIA423 (single-ended) distance and data rate ~ Only because the driver on the 423 side is single ended, while the receiver on the 422 side would receive the single-ended 423 signal and ground on its differential pair. How ever because 423 and 422 use the same receiver chip; going from 422 to 423 provides a differential path.
EIA/TIA-423
Unbalanced (Single-Ended) interface; specifies a single, unidirectional
driver with multiple receivers (up to 10). "..Specifies the electrical
characteristics of the unbalanced voltage digital interface circuit,
normally implemented in integrated circuit technology, that may be
employed when specified for the interchange of serial binary signals
between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data Circuit-Terminating
Equipment (DCE) or in any point-to-point interconnection of serial
binary signals between digital equipment." 'Telecommunications Industry
Association' EIA-423 is used in EIA-449 and EIA530, both of which
define the cabling and pin-out to form a complete interface.
Fuentes:
http://www.interfacebus.com/Design_Connector_EIA449_Bus.html
http://www.interfacebus.com/Design_EIA_449_Connector_PinOuts.html
http://www.hardwarebook.net/connector/serial/eia449.html
Son objectius 'numèrics' per evaluar el rendiment d'una xarxa o connexió:
Service Level Agreement (SLA): Son els contractes de tràfic en els quals la companyia es comprometeix a oferir uns serveis concrets. Es demanen a les companyies que proporcionan la connexió a canvi d'un sobrepreu.
Característiques desitjables segons usos:
Petició per obtenir qualitat de servei:
Es fa a tots els nodes.
()
Los códigos cíclicos también se llaman CRC (Códigos de Redundancia Cíclica) o códigos polinómicos. Su uso está muy extendido porque pueden implementarse en hardware con mucha facilidad y son muy potentes.
Estos códigos se basan en el uso de un polinomio generador G(X) de grado r, y en el principio de que n bits de datos binarios se pueden considerar como los coeficientes de un polinomio de orden n-1.
Por ejemplo, los datos 10111 pueden tratarse como el polinomio x4 + x² + x¹ + x0
A estos bits de datos se le añaden r bits de redundancia de forma que el polinomio resultante sea divisible por el polinomio generador. El receptor verificará si el polinomio recibido es divisible por G(X). Si no lo es, habrá un error en la transmisión.
Los bits de datos se dividen en bloques (llamados frames en inglés), y a cada bloque se le calcula r, que se denomina secuencia de comprobación de bloque (Frame Check Sequence, FCS, en inglés)
Los polinomios generadores más usados son:
CRC-12: x12 + x11 + x³ + x² + x¹ + 1.Usado para transmitir flujos de 6 bits, junto a otros 12 de redundancia. Es decir, usa bloques de 6 bits, a los que les une un FCS que genera de 12 bits.
CRC-16: x16 + x15 + x² + 1. Para flujos de 8 bits, con 16 de redundancia. Usado en USA, principalmente.
CRC-CCITT: x16 + x12 + x5 + 1. Para flujos de 8 bits, con 16 de redundancia. Usado en Europa, principalmente.
CRC-32: x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x² + x + 1. Da una protección extra sobre la que dan los CRC de 16 bits, que suelen dar la suficiente. Se emplea por el comité de estándares de redes locales (IEEE-802) y en algunas aplicaciones del Departamento de Defensa de USA.
(Fuente: http://es.wikipedia.org)